Literature on megapodes

This page informs you about (1) the history of megapode research, (2) links to other webpages on megapodes; and (3) further readings on megapodes.

1. History of megapode research

Due to their extraordinary level of independence, megapode chicks soon found their way into early literature. Many fauna records for the Australo-pacific region mention them, for example that their behaviour at hatching is as far developed as that of one month old chickens (Wallace 1860, Fleay 1937) and that they kick their way out of the shell instead of pipping (Campbell 1903, Bergman 1963).

During the first half of the 20th century, considerable debate evolved around whether the megapode method of reproduction has evolved directly from that of reptile ancestors (e.g. Portmann 1955) or that of galliformes (Pycraft 1907). Clark (1960, 1964a, b) examined some body features and stated that megapode chicks derive from galliform ancestors. Nice (1962) compared megapode chicks with young of other birds and stated that megapodes have the most precocial chicks of all birds.

Many more recent publications deal with physiological aspects, e.g. how megapode hatchlings manage to thermoregulate (Booth 1985b), or how the gaseous environment and the incubation temperature affect the embryo (Seymour and Ackermann 1980; Ackermann & Seagrave 1987; Booth 1984, 1985a, 1987a,b; Booth and Seymour 1987; Seymour et al.1986, 1987; Vleck et al.1984). Some results exist on the hatching success (Brickhill 1986; Booth 1987c, Jones 1988), the growth rate after hatching (Sutter 1965; Robiller et al.1985; Ruempler 1988; Dekker 1989; Starck 1994) or the moult of chicks (Stresemann 1965).

The behaviour of adult megapodes has been studied extensively in one species, the Australian Brush-turkey (Birks 1997, 1999; Jones, see list below). In contrast, little was known about the behaviour of any megapode chicks before the onset of this study. Most observations were of anecdotal nature (Hyem 1936; Bergman 1961; Jacobi 1970; West et al.1981; Todd 1983; Winn 1992). So far, six more extensive studies on captive megapode chicks have been undertaken: on the Wattled Brush-turkey Aepypodius arfakianus (Kloska and Nicolai 1988), the Mallefowl Leipoa ocellata (Immelmann and Böhner 1984; Benshemesh 1999), Polynesian Megapode (Göth, see list below) and the Australian Brush-turkey (Baltin 1969, Wong 1999a, b, plus see list of own publications). Observations on free-ranging chicks of other species than the brush-turkey were mostly limited to short encounters at the incubation site (Sibley 1946; Frith 1959, 1962; Bishop 1980; MacKinnon 1981; Watling 1983; Dekker, 1990; Bregulla 1992). Malleefowl chicks, however, were studied more intensively as part of a conservation project (Benshemesh 1999; Priddel and Wheeler 1990, 1994, 1999).

Detailed information on all megapodes can be found in the book "The Megapodes" (Jones et al. 1995). Their conservation status is summarized in the IUCN publication "Megapodes - an action plan for their conservation 2000-2005" (Dekker et al. 2000).

The Malleefowl, an endangered Australian megapode.

2. Links to homepages on megapodes:

Megapode Action Plan

Malleefowl Preservation Group

Fossil megapodes

Melanesian Megapodes on the Solomon Islands

Micronesian Megapodes on the Mariana Islands and Palau

Moluccan Megapode

Orange-footed Megapodes in Australia

Bruijns Brush-turkey re-discovered

Book: The Megapodes, by D.N. Jones, R.W.R.J. Dekker and C.S. Roselaar

3. Selected readings on megapodes:

Ackerman, R.A.& R.C. Seagrave. 1987. Modelling heat and mass exchange of buried avian eggs. The Journal of Experimental Zoology Supplement 1: 87-97. Baltin, S. 1969. Zur Biologie und Ethologie des Talegalla-Huhnes (Alectura lathami Gray) unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Verhaltens während der Brutperiode. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 26: 524 - 572. Benshemesh, J. 1999. The National Malleefowl Recovery Plan: a framework for conserving the species across Australia. In: Jones, D., Dekker R.W.R.J. and J. Benshemesh (eds.) Proceedings of the Third International Megapode Symposium, Nhill, Australia, December 1997, Zoologische Verhandelingen, Leiden, pp.101-124. Bergman, S. 1961. Mein Vater, der Kannibale. F.A. Brockhaus, Wiesbaden, Germany. Bergman, S. 1963. Observations on the early life of Talegalla and Megapodius in New Guinea. Nova Guinea Zoology 17: 347-354. Birks, S. 1997. Paternity in the Australian brush-turkey, Alectura lathami, a megapode bird with uniparental male care. Behavioral Ecology 8: 560-568. Birks, S. 1999. Unusual timing of copulations in the Australian brush-turkey. Auk 116: 169-177. Bishop, D. 1980. Birds of the volcanoes. The Scrubfowl of West New Britain. World Pheasant Association Journal 5: 80-90. Booth, D.T. 1984. Thermoregulation in neonate Mallee Fowl Leipoa ocellata. Physiological Zoology 57: 251-260. Booth, D.T. 1985a. Ecological physiology of Mallefowl (Leipoa ocellata). Ph.D. dissertation. University of Adelaide. Booth, D.T. 1985b. Thermoregulation in neonate Brush Turkeys (Alectura lathami). Physiological Zoology 58: 374-379. Booth, D.T. 1987a. Effect of temperature on development of Mallefowl Leipoa ocellata eggs. Physiological Zoology 60: 437-445. Booth, D.T. 1987b. Metabolic response of Malleefowl Leipoa ocellata embryos to cooling and heating . Physiological Zoology 60: 446-453. Booth, D.T. 1987c. Home range and hatching success of Mallefowl Leipoa ocellata Gould (Megapodiidae) in Murray Mallee near Renmark, S.A. Australian Wildlife Research 14: 95-104. Bregulla, H.L. 1992. Birds of Vanuatu. Anthony Nelson Press, Oswestry. Brickhill, J. 1986. Breeding success of Malleefowl Leipoa ocellata Central New South Wales. Emu 87: 42-45. Campbell, A.J. 1903. The mound-building birds in Australia. Bird-Lore 5: 3-8. Clark, G.A. 1960. Notes on the embryology and evolution of the Megapodes. Postilla, Yale Peabody Museum 45: 1-7. Clark, G.A. 1964a. Life history and the evolution of megapodes. The Living Bird, Ithaca, New York 3: 149-167. Clark, G.A. 1964b. Ontogeny and evolution of the megapodes. Postilla, Yale Peabody Museum 78: 1-37. Dekker, R.W.R.J. 1989a. Maleos hatched at New York Zoological Society Wildlife Survival Centre, St. Catherine's Island. Megapode Newsletter 3: 6-7. Dekker, R.W.R.J. 1989b. Predation and western limits of the megapode distribution. Journal of Biogeography 6: 317-321. Dekker, R.W.R.J. 1990. Evolution of megapode incubation strategies. In: Dekker, R. W. R. J. Conservation and Biology of Megapodes (Megapodiidae, Galliformes, Aves). Thesis, University of Amsterdam. Rodopi, Amsterdam: 105-127. Dekker, R.W.R.J. and T.G. Brom. 1990. Maleo eggs and the amount of yolk in relation to different incubation strategies in Megapodes. Australian Journal of Zoology 38: 19-24. Dekker, R.W.R.J., Fuller, R.A. and G.C. Baker. 2000. Megapodes: Status survey and conservation action plan 2000-2005. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Fleay, D.H. 1937. Nesting habits of the Brush Turkey. Emu 36: 153-163. Frith, H.J. 1956. Temperature regulation in the nesting mounds of the Mallefowl, Leipoa ocellata. Australian Wildlife Research 1: 79-95. Frith, H.J. 1959. Breeding of the Mallefowl Leipoa ocellata (Megapodiidae). CSIRO Wildlife Research 4: 31-60. Frith, H.J. 1962. The Mallee Fowl. Augus & Robertson, Sydney. Göth, A. 1995. Summary of Diploma-Thesis "Some aspects of the ontogeny of the Polynesian Megapode (Megapodius pritchardii, Megapodiidae)". Megapode Newsletter 9: 4-6. Göth, A. & U. Vogel. 1995. Status of the Polynesian Megapode, Megapodius pritchardii, on Niuafo'ou. Bird Conservation International 5: 117-128. Göth, A. & U. Vogel. 1997. Egg laying and incubation of the Polynesian Megapode. Annual Review of the World Pheasant Association 1996/97: 43-54. Göth, A. & U. Vogel. 1999. Notes on breeding and conservation of birds on Niuafo'ou Island, Kindom of Tonga. Pacific Conservation Biology 5: 103-114. Göth, A., Vogel, U. and E. Curio. 1999. The acoustic communication of the Polynesian Megapode Megapodius pritchardii G.R. Gray. In: Jones, D., Dekker R.W.R.J. and J. Benshemesh (eds.) Proceedings of the Third International Megapode Symposium, Nhill, Australia, December 1997, Zoologische Verhandelingen, Leiden, pp.37-52. Healey, C. 1994. Dispersal of newly hatched Orange-footed Scrubfowl Megapodius reinwardt. Emu 94: 221. Heij, C. J., Rompas, C. F. E. & C.W. Moeliker. 1997. The biology of the Moluccan megapode Eulipoa wallacei (Aves, Galliformes, Megapodiidae) on Haruku and other Moluccan islands. Deinsea, Annual of the Natural History Museum Rotterdam 3: 1-124. Hyem, E.L. 1936. Notes of the birds of Mernot, Barringtonia. N.S.W. Emu 36: 109-127. Immelmann, K. & J. Böhner. 1984. Beobachtungen am Thermometerhuhn (Leipoa ocellata) in Australien. Journal für Ornithologie 125: 141-155. Jacobi, E.F. 1970. Die Zucht von Talegallahühnern (Alectura lathami Gray) mit elektrischer Bruthitze. Zoologischer Garten 39: 129-132. Jones, D. N. 1988a. Construction and maintenance of the incubation mounds of the Australian Brush-turkey Alectura lathami. Emu 88: 210-218. Jones, D. N. 1988b. Hatching success of the Australian Brush-turkey Alectura lathami in south-east Queensland. Emu 88: 260-263. Jones, D. N. 1990a. Male mating tactics in a promiscuous megapode: patterns of incubation mound ownership. Behavioral Ecology 1: 107-115. Jones, D. N. 1990b. Social organization and sexual interactions in Australian Brush-turkeys Alectura lathami: Implications of promiscuity in a mound-building megapode. Ethology 84: 89-104. Jones, D. N. 1994. Reproduction without parenthood: male tactics and female choice in a promiscuous bird. In: Animal societies. Jarman P. J. & A. Rossitter (eds.). Kyoto University Press, Kyoto. Jones, D.N. 1999. What we don't know about megapodes. In: Jones, D., Dekker R.W.R.J. and J. Benshemesh (eds.) Proceedings of the Third International Megapode Symposium, Nhill, Australia, December 1997, Zoologische Verhandelingen, Leiden: 159-168. Jones, D. N. & S. Birks. 1992. Megapodes: recent ideas on origin, adaptions and reproduction. Trends. in Ecology and Evolution 7: 88-91. Jones, D.N., Dekker R.W.R.J. and C.S. Roselaar (eds). 1995. The megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Kloska, C. & J. Nicolai. 1988. Fortpflanzungsverhalten des Kamm-Talegalla (Aepypodius arfakianus Salvad.). Journal für Ornithologie 129: 185-204. MacKinnon, J. 1981. Methods for the conservation of Maleo birds Macrocephalon maleo on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biological Conservation 20: 183-193. Nice, M.M. 1962. Development of behavior in precocial birds. Transactions of the Linnean Society New York 8: 1-211. Palmer, C., Christian, K. A. & A. Fisher. 2000. Mound Characteristics and Behaviour of the Orange-footed Scrubfowl in the Seasonal Tropics of Australia. Emu 100: 54-63. Portmann, A. 1955. Die postembryonale Entwicklung der Vögel als Evolutionsproblem. Acta XI Congressus Internationalis Orn., 1954, pp. 138-151. Priddel, D. & R. Wheeler. 1990. Survival of Mallefowl Leipoa ocellata chicks in the absence of ground-dwelling predators. Emu 90: 81-87. Priddel, D. & R. Wheeler. 1994. Mortality of captive-raised Malleefowl, Leipoa ocellata, released into a mallee remnant within the wheat-belt of New South Wales. Wildlife Research 21: 543-552. Priddel, D. & Wheeler, R. 1996. Effect of age at release on the susceptibility of captive-reared Malleefowl Leipoa ocellata to predation by the introduced Fox Vulpes vulpes. Emu 96: 32-41. Priddel, D. & R. Wheeler. 1999. Malleefowl conservation in New South Wales: a review. In: Jones, D., Dekker R.W.R.J. and J. Benshemesh (eds.) Proceedings of the Third International Megapode Symposium, Nhill, Australia, December 1997, Zoologische Verhandelingen, Leiden, pp.125-141. Pycraft, W.P. 1907. On the origin of differences between nestling birds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Ornithological Congress, pp. 454-459. Robiller, F., Gerstner R. and K. Trogisch. 1985. Naturbrut von Halsbandtalegalla oder Jobi-Maleo Talegalla jobiensis Meyer 1874. Gefiederte Welt 109: 214-216. Roper, D. S. 1983. Egg incubation and laying behaviour of the incubator bird Megapodius freycinet in Savo. Ibis 125: 384-389. Seymour, R.S. & R.A. Ackermann. 1980. Adaptions to underground nesting in birds and reptiles. American Zoologist 20: 437-447. Seymour, R.S., Vleck, D. & C.M. Vleck. 1986. Gas exchange in the incubation mounds of megapode birds. Journal of Comparative Physiology 156: 773-782. Seymour, R. S. 1995. Calorimetic investigation on mound-building birds. Acta Thermochimica 250: 319-328. Seymour, R.S., Vleck, D., Vleck, C.M. & D.T. Booth. 1987. Water relations of buried eggs of mound building birds. Journal of Comparative Physiology 157: 413-422. Sibley, C. 1946. Breeding habits of the megapodes on Simbo, Central Solomon Islands. The Condor 48: 92-93. Sinclair, J. R., O'Brien, T. G. & M.F. Kinnaird. 1999. Observations on the breeding biology of the Philippine Megapode (Megapodius cumingii) in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Tropical Biodiversity, 6, 87-97. Starck, J.M. 1994. Comparative analysis of growth and the evolution of superprecociality in megapodes. Megapode Newsletter 8: 11-14. Steadman, D. W., Worthy, T. H., Anderson, A. J. & R. Walter. 2000. New species and records of birds from prehistoric sites on Niue, Southwest Pacific. Wilson Bulletin 112: 165-186. Stresemann, E. 1965. Die Mauser der Hühervögel. Journal für Ornithologie 106: 58-64. Sutter, E. 1965. Zum Wachstum der Grossfusshühner (Alectura und Megapodius). Der Ornithologische Beobachter 62: 43-60. Todd, D.M. 1983. Pritchard's megapode on Niuafo'ou Island, Kingdom of Tonga. World Pheasant Association Journal 8: 69-88. Vleck, D., Vleck, C.M. & R.S. Seymour. 1984. Energetics of embryonic develompent in the megapode birds, Mallee Fowl Leipoa ocellata and Brush Turkey Alectura lathami. Physiological Zoology 57: 444-456. Wallace, A.R. 1860. The ornithology of Northern Celebes. Ibis 2: 140-147. Watling, D. 1983. Sandbox incubator. Animal Kingdom 53: 28-35. West, J. & R. Madinah & Malik Hasan. 1981. Artificial incubation of the Moluccan scrub hen Eulipoa wallacei. International Zoo Yearbook 21: 115-118. Wiles, G. J. & Conry, P. J. 2001. Characteristics of nest mounds of Micronesian Megapodes in Palau. Journal of Field Ornithology 72: 267-275. Wilson, E. O. 1992. The diversity of life. Penguin, London, U.K, p. 184. Winn, B. 1992. Captive breeding of the Maleo Macrocephalon maleo. Megapode Newsletter 6: 3-5. Wong, S. 1998. Estimating the hatch dates of Australian brush-turkey embryos by candling. CSIRO Wildlife Research 25: 669-676. Wong, S. 1999a. Visual predator recognition in Australian brush-turkey (Alectura lathami) hatchlings. In: Jones, D., Dekker R.W.R.J. and J. Benshemesh (eds.) Proceedings of the Third International Megapode Symposium, Nhill, Australia, December 1997, Zoologische Verhandelingen, Leiden. Wong, S. 1999b. Development and behaviour of hatchlings of the Australian Brush-turkey Alectura lathami. Ph.D. Thesis, Griffith University, Brisbane.

Text and Photos: Ann Göth; Design: Uwe Vogel
Last updated July 2005